Monday, January 27, 2020
Entomotoxicology in Forensic Science
Entomotoxicology in Forensic Science ENTOMOTOXICOLOGY: A POWERFUL TOOL FOR FORENSIC SCIENCE For many years, forensic science have known that insects and their larvae hold answers to deaths that are not quite clear in terms of their actual timeframe or situations surrounding them. Now, a branch called entomotoxicology is helping those who work in forensic science find new answers to the questions that have remained in certain cases. This paper examines the role and science behind the advancing field of entomotoxicology in which toxins and drugs can be measured in the insects and larvae that infest even the most decomposed body. Before understanding this branch of forensic science, it is important to understand how bodies decompose and how insects become a part of the transformation of a human body once the person has died. It is important to study the decomposition process as part of a crime scene because it helps determine the victim, how they died, and when and where they died (Vass 2001: 192). Other factors, such as the presence of melanin can help investigators find out the race or ethnic background of the victim (Vass 2001: 192). Additionally, ââ¬Å"knowledge of any trace amounts of chemicals, drugs, medications or toxins present in decomposed tissue may also be of help to investigators in attempting to determine the cause of deathâ⬠(Vass 2001: 192). Having said that, it is then important to understand what is generally involved in the decomposition process. The start of the decomposition process has been clocked down to four minutes after death has occurred (Vass 2001: 190). The putrefaction process is where the bodyââ¬â¢s soft tissues are destroyed by micro-organisms, such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa (Vass 2001: 190). Part of what happens to a decomposing body is a mummification process (Anonymous 2007: 2) that is called adipocere, which is ââ¬Å"insoluble fatty acidsâ⬠that are left behind from ââ¬Å"pre-existing fatsâ⬠that forms within a month of death but can remain as part of the cadaver for literally centuries (Wikipedia 2007: 1). Created from bacteria that convert a bodyââ¬â¢s fat, adipocere is the formation of soap from this fat is also known as saponification and appears in the form of a ââ¬Å"yellowish-white, greasy, wax-like substanceâ⬠(Voss 2001: 190). This substance can slow the growth of bacteria and can protect the body from further decomposition (Wikipedia 2007: 1). Adipocere also ââ¬Å"forms through hydrolysisâ⬠so it is more common in humid environments or when a body is found underwater (Wikipedia 2007: 1). It is also interesting to note that adipocere also seems more common on corpses that are clothed in synthetic materials versus natural materials, such as cotton (Anonymous 2007: 3). Additionally, soils that are highly alkaline contribute to adipocere formation (Anonymous 2007: 4). This is because the alkaline source hydrolyses the corpseââ¬â¢s fat, turning it into the aforementioned soap-like substance (Anonymous 2007: 4). The deposits of adipocere are beneficial in determini ng the weight of an individual, which may then lead to the identity of that person (Vass 2001: 192). Insect activity, including laying eggs, eventually becomes part of the process ââ¬â sometimes as soon as the onslaught of rigor mortis (Anonymous 2007: 2) ââ¬â and leads to a significant decline in the condition of a corpse (Vass 2001: 190). Injuries, such as wounds and other instances where the dead person previously bled before dying can increase the onset of insects and bacteria (Voss 2001: 1919). Along with adipocere in a decomposing body comes the infestation by maggots and bugs, which are interrelated due to the amount of adipocere and climate conditions of the area where the decomposing body is located. Insects ââ¬â especially arthropods ââ¬â have played a significant role in forensic science because they, including larval and mature forms, like to feed on organic substances (Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). They feed on wounds and decomposing bodies, subsisting on ââ¬Å"the nostrils, sinuses, stomach, bowels, ears, vagina and anus part from the skinâ⬠(Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). Forensic entomology has been used for years to help calculate the time of death of a body as well as ââ¬Å"who was the killer, whether a killer had been in a particular spot or not, which was the murder weapon, in what manner a person had been killed and so onâ⬠(Aggrawal 2001: 1-2). The exact science really uses an estimate of ââ¬Å"the period of insect activity on the dead bodyà ¢â¬ (McKenna 2003: 3). There can be outside factors, such as ââ¬Å"weather conditions, placement or concealment of the body, or other factorsâ⬠that delay the arrival of insects (McKenna 2003: 3). For example, one noted forensic scientist who specialises in studying insects on bodies pointed out that ââ¬Å"insects will begin to colonize an exposed body within minutes following deathâ⬠in warm climates like Hawaii but may take longer to appear in more temperate climates (McKenna 2003: 3). However, what becomes hard to gauge is the effect of substances, such as heroin and cocaine, play on a person because it can be difficult to measure the toxicity level of these substances in the body once blood and certain tissue is no longer in a form to be accurately analysed (Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). Sometimes, it is not clear whether or not there might have been an ââ¬Å"accidental or suicidal consumption of toxic substancesâ⬠(Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). For example, in researching the subject of entomotoxicology, it is clear that it is only in recent years has it become a well-utilised facet of forensic science. An article from a 1998 Journal of Forensic Science had a case that described the suicide death of a heroin addict (Benecke 1998: 3). While the body showed signs of masses of eggs that were first and second generation cheese skippers, which helped the forensics team that the woman had been dead about four months, there were other unanswered questions in regards to the level of heroin in her body (Benecke 1998: 3): ââ¬Å"This case indicates that P. caset does not shorten its development significantly under the influence of heroin as was observed for some arthropods. However, the exact concentration of heroin could not be determined because of the severe decompositionâ⬠(Benecke 1998: 3). In a similar case with another heroin addict, those investigating the death admitted that the ââ¬Å"influence of drugs in corpses to the insects feeding on them is still in progressâ⬠and there was still no conclusive way to indicate the quantity of drugs in the body of the drug user (Benecke 1998: 5). This is where the relatively new science of entomotoxicology becomes an important and vital way to find solutions to certain cadaver issues related to drugs and toxins. Going beyond just studying the insects found on corpses to gain insights into what may have happened to a person, entomotoxicology includes ââ¬Å"the post-mortem toxicological analysis of carrion-feeding insects in order to identify drugs and toxins present on intoxicated tissuesâ⬠(Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). This branch of forensic science ââ¬Å"also investigates the effects caused by drugs and toxins on arthropod development in order to assist the forensic post-mortem interval estimatesâ⬠(Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). What happens is that ââ¬Å"insect larvae eat the flesh of a person and based on the drug content of the insect, drug intake of descendent can be determinedâ⬠(DeBoeck, Wood, and Samyn 2007: 14). The drugs or toxins become concentrated in the body of the insect tissue and may stay ther e based on the level of concentration from the cadaver (McKenna 2003: 4). As a particularly effective tactic during the autopsy stage, entomotoxicology is an incredible process that puts the amazing powers of insects to work: Diptera and other arthropods can be reliable alternate specimens for toxicological analyses in the absence of tissues and fluids normally taken for such purposes. Insects can be analysed quite easily after homogenisation by common toxicological procedures such as radio-immune analysis (RIA), gas chromatography (GC), think layer chromatography (TLC), high pressure liquid-mass chromatography (HPLC-MS) and gas-mass analysis (GC-MS). (Tuzun and Acikgoz 2007: 1). Previously, the methods used were ââ¬Å"time-consuming and labor-intensiveâ⬠(DeBoeck, Wood, and Samyn 2007: 5). The new methods incorporated into entomotoxicology utilise tandem mass spectrometry and multiple reaction monitoring to identify low levels of compounds ââ¬Å"in complex biological matricesâ⬠(DeBoeck, Wood, and Samyn 2007: 6). Diagnosis allows for an actual analysis of the ââ¬Å"metabolites of drugsâ⬠and helps differentiate ââ¬Å"between prescription and non-prescription derivatives of drugsâ⬠(DeBoeck, Wood, and Samyn 2007: 6). To better understand how insects that have ingested toxic human flesh can help forensic scientists, it is best to examine a specific experiment that utilised the Black Blow Fly which had ingested Carisoprodol, a muscle relaxant sold by prescription only (Monthei 2007: 1): Even though Carisoprodol had no effect on the flyââ¬â¢s life cycle, the experiment is significant because a carbamate like Carisoprodol has not been tested before in this manner. This experiment could be done with another species of fly and have different results. Also, another person doing an independent study could take the maggots that I collected and determine if Carisoprodol accumulated in the maggots or if a metabolite of the drug is present. The presence of Carisoprodol would be significant to a toxicologist because if a body found at a crime scene was devoid of tissue, the toxicologist could use the maggots to determine if the deceased had Carisprodol in his or her system. My study showed that a forensic entomologist would not have to adjust the PMI based on the presence of the drug because this insectââ¬â¢s life cycle is not changed due to the drug (Monthei 2007: 1-2). Similarly, if a person was killed by morphine and the body ended up becoming infested by maggots during the decomposition process, the morphine can now be detected by analysing the maggots and the larvae (Aggrawal 2001: 1). Whatââ¬â¢s interesting is that, as the maggots ââ¬Å"metamorphose into pupae, this morphine gets incorporated in their walls (Aggrawal 2001: 1). This means that, even years later, a skeletonised body could be tested and found to have died from morphine by testing pupae shells around the skeleton since morphine is impossible to detect by studying human bones (Aggrawal 2001: 1). The book entitled, A Fly for the Prosecution, goes into great detail explaining how entomotoxicology works. The author describes a paper published in 1990 by Pascal Kintz that describes how he tested for five drugs in both a cadaverââ¬â¢s organs and the maggots that were found and while the organs only tested positive for four of the drugs, the maggots had all five, including an insecticide known as malathion (Aggrawal 2001: 3). Interestingly enough, ââ¬Å"in the case involving malathion, his conclusions regarding the time of death were a bout five days, while other evidence was pointing towards eight daysâ⬠¦.Malathion had failed to kill the maggotsâ⬠¦but had delayed their maturation by 3 days (Aggrawal 2001: 3). The level of malathion would have killed them if they had been adult flies instead of maggots (Aggrawal 2001: 3). As forensic science progresses, more advancements have been made, particularly in the areas of DNA technology and entomotoxicology. In terms of DNA advances, this tactic has enabled forensic scientists to more quickly identify ââ¬Å"early instars of the Diptera larvae, eliminating the need for time consuming rearing of the larvae to the adult stageâ⬠(McKenna 2003: 5). Additionally, ââ¬Å"the effects of various drugs and toxins on maggots development have demonstrated the need to include these in the estimations of the periods of insects development on a body when estimating the post-mortem intervalâ⬠(McKenna 2003: 5). This is just some of the many examples available on how this new area of forensic science is providing more answers for those doing autopsies or studying crimes. While insect evidence as part of forensic study became more credible in the 1980s, it has slowly become more accepted rather than having maggots removed from a body to reach the ââ¬Å"real evidenceâ⬠(McKenna 2003: 4). Now, the role of entomologists and law enforcement are becoming more comfortable with each other as the number of cases are indicating the amazing finds of both straightforward entomology forensics and entomotoxicology in particular cases. Adding the use of insect toxicology as a scientific tool to their other capabilities allows the forensic scientist to uncover further clues that might have previously gone unnoticed due to their inability to gather the evidence from a badly decomposed corpse or from mummified or skeletal remains. References Aggrawal, A. (January-June 2001). A fly for the prosecution by M. Lee Goff. Anil Aggrawalââ¬â¢s Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, 2, 1, Available at: http://www.geradts.com/anil/ij/vol_002_no_001/popular_books_002_001/page006.html. Anonymous (2007). Chemistry. Adipocere, Available at: http://adipocere.homestead.com/chemistry.html. Benecke, M. (July 1998). Six forensic entomology cases: description and commentary. Journal of Forensic Sciences. DeBoeck, G., Wood, M., and Samyn, N. (2007). Recent applications of LC-MS in forensic science. McKenna, D. (11 November 2003). A bug life: 10 questions for a forensic entomologist. Available at: http://www.courttv.com/news/2003/1111/tenbugs_ctv.html. Monthei, D. (30 March 2007). Bugs on drugs. Virginia Commonwealth University, Available at: http://www.has.vcu.edu/forensics/current_stuides/cs_ugrad_ind_voice.html. Tuzun, A. and Acikgoz, H.N. (2007). A new investigation area in forensic sciences: entomotoxicology. Available at: http://medicine.ankara.edu.tr/~acikgoz/forensicsciences2.html. Vass, A.A. (November 2001). Beyond the grave ââ¬â understanding human decomposition. Microbiology Today, 28, 190-192. Wikipedia. (2007). Adipocere. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipocere.
Sunday, January 19, 2020
Erwin Chargaff
My name is Erwin Chargaff and I discovered the structure of DNA. After reading Oswald Averyââ¬â¢s report, in 1944, about how genes were composed of DNA I become motivated to begin work on the chemistry of nucleic acids. I started researching with the belief that DNA from different species are different so I had to come up with an experiment to examine the DNA from different species. It was hard for me because I couldnââ¬â¢t get large amounts of DNA so it took awhile for my experimenting. After about 2 years I was able to come up with a solid procedure containing three steps.First, I had to separate the DNA mixture with chromatography paper. Then I converted the separated components into mercury salts and last but not least I was able to identify the purines and pyrimidines ( the building blocks of nucleic acids) by using their ultraviolet absorption spectra. I tested this method several times and was finally able to use it to examine the DNA of yeast and pancreatic cells. About a month later, I submitted two papers on my findings of the DNA of calf thymus and beef spleen and tubercle bacilli and yeast.My papers were rejected so I decided to improve my procedure and by doing that I was able to examine more species. I summarized what I found on nucleic acids in a review and finally in 1950, my experimenting lead to me discover important facts. I came up with three rules that I named as Chargaffââ¬â¢s rule. The first rule is that the number of Adenine always equals the number of thymine. The second is that the number of guanine always equals the number of cytosine and the last one is that the purines (adenine and guanine) always equal the number of pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine.I was also able to prove that the DNA of various species are different from one another. I did not collaborate with anyone for my experiment but two years later I explained my findings to Watson and Crick who were then later to come up the with DNA structure. I was a bit surpri sed that I wasnââ¬â¢t included in the Noble Prize since I did share my information with Watson and Crick and with that they were able to come up with the model. So, after Watson and Crick won the Nobel Prize, I withdrew from left my lab and started to write essays and lectures.
Saturday, January 11, 2020
Green Mountain Coffee Case Study Essay
Conscientious capitalism underscores the importance of aligning stakeholdersââ¬â¢: employees, customers, shareholders, suppliers, community, and the environment, interests into the companyââ¬â¢s decisions by refocusing on purpose instead of profit, which incidentally results in a successful bottom line (Sacks, 2009). The operating philosophy of conscientious capitalism incorporates three assumptions: interconnectedness, holistic wealth, and traversing time through multiple generations. Green Mountain Coffee Roasters (GMCR) has integrated this ethical continuum into their operational strategy, which has led to their current success. Interconnectedness GMCR embodies interconnectedness through their annual summit meetings that employ an Appreciative Inquiry (AI) 4-D model and through their organizationââ¬â¢s cultural commitment. At the summit meetings, multiple internal and external company stakeholders convene to strategically plan for the future, assess stakeholder value and contributions to success, as well as reflect on company and industry historical trends, all which promote the positive core of GMCR (Neville, 2008). Interconnectedness is also evident by the embodiment of GMCRââ¬â¢s inaugural five core beliefs: a passion for coffee (recreating Stillerââ¬â¢s first experience of the perfect cup of coffee), financial performance, a destination workplace, ethics, and commitment to social responsibility (Neville, 2008). By engaging the stakeholders, especially with annual trips to the ââ¬Å"originâ⬠, GMCR creates a unified allegiance to social and ethical responsibility that produces positive ethical and financial outcomes for the company. Holistic wealth GMCR epitomizes holistic wealth in the form of value-based management (VBM), which can be defined as an integrated management control system that measures, encourages, and supports the creation of net worth beyond capital accumulation and profit (Beck & Britzelmaier, 2011). One way that GMCR uses VBM to create net worth is through flexible cash flow models provided to coffee farmers. The model entails providing interest-free pecuniary resources to coffee growers preceding the harvest, which secures perpetual payments for the suppliers, invariable income for the farmerââ¬â¢s family, and an uninterrupted coffee flow for GMCR (Neville, 2008). Another example of VBM is GMCRââ¬â¢s utilization of Fair Trade initiatives and family farming contracts that employ direct buying agreements granting farmers fair prices for their crops. By employing these types of social standards as a tradeoff for long-term sustainability, GMCR makes all stakeholders feel valued, which in turn increases their passion for productivity and subsequently GMCRââ¬â¢s bottom line. Traversing time through multiple generations With a global focus on agricultural replenishment and perpetuity, the common emphasis for businesses in this industry has been extending the vivaciousness of crops across multiple generations. Given that 30 coffee trees are required to provide one, three time per day coffee drinker with enough coffee and combined with the fact that the trees have to remain viable for at least 10 years to yield a financially profitable crop, GMCRââ¬â¢s commitment to organic food processes promotes to the concept of multiple generations of time, allowing farmers to pass their crops through generations (Neville, 2008). By trading a traditional business paradigm for one centered on an all-inclusive value-based continuum that encompasses interconnected systems of farmers, stakeholders, land, and visible and invisible time, GMCR is a prime example of how conscientious capitalism can stimulate corporate and financial success.
Thursday, January 2, 2020
Bibliiography Regarding Economy Topics - 1076 Words
Aidoo, Richard 2009 Review of The Trouble with Aid: Why Less Could Mean More for Africa, and: The Trouble with Africa: Why Foreign Aid Isnââ¬â¢t Working. Africa Today 56(2): 97-101 Aidoo expands on Jon Glennieââ¬â¢s scope of the discussion regarding aid implementation in Africa. He takes into account other prevalent work and analyzes the debate as a whole. The issue, on which people readily take sides, he contends is often too simplistically portrayed, often leading to poor solutions, typically in the form of more aid. Aidooââ¬â¢s critique of Glennie, who embraces aid reduction policies, calls Glennieââ¬â¢s stance intellectually merited, but fails to move beyond an academic concept. Coyne, Christopher 2013 Doing Bad by Doing Good: Stanford Economics and Finance DBBDG shows the problems that those who intervene undergo when venturing into humanitarian efforts. The bureaucratic incentive structure of aid organizations and unintended consequences that stem from their actions often end up doing more harm than good. Coynes analysis uses economic principle to form his case for using caution when considering humanitarian intervention. Those who intervene lack understanding of how the many variables associated with intervention will interact and how the bureaucratic incentive structure lacks the feedback mechanisms necessary for truly learning from mistakes. Coyne goes on to show how the different incentives of the bureaucracy will often clash with each other and with the end goal of
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